Outcome NR1 Peatland and heathland

Peatlands of any depth, with their associated mire, fen, flush, carr, wet and dry heath and grassland habitats, should be managed as dynamic landscape-scale mosaics to support the full range of species associated with these habitats. Hydrological integrity is the key to this, and hydrological restoration is, therefore, often the primary intervention required to restore good ecological condition on peat soils.

A new England Peat Map was published by Natural England in 2025 [74 ]. Using the integration of AI techniques with satellite imagery, pre-existing peat survey data, new field survey data, data on geology, topography (LIDAR) and historic land-use, the models underlying the maps give an overall accuracy of 95% for the extent of peat soils. Natural England defines peat soil as any soil with an organic content of 20 percent or more and a thickness of at least 10 cm. This definition is used as the basis for the phrase 'peat soils' in the measures, and as the basis for the map for Outcome NR1.

71% percent of the North Pennines National Landscape is covered in peat soils. A variety of different vegetation communities exist on these peat soils in an intricate mosaic. Where these communities exist on deep peat (30cm or more) they are broadly categorised as blanket bog (36% of the National Landscape), and on shallower peat soils they are broadly categorised as heathland (17% of the National Landscape).

The discrepancy between the total area of peat soils (71%) and the total area of blanket bog and heathland habitats which are recorded on them (43% of the National Landscape) is due to a number of factors, including inaccuracies in the peatland data model, the existence of other priority habitats such as flushes and fens which exist on peat soils, the misclassification of habitats, and the existence of some plantation of conifers on peat. However, the biggest contributor to the gap is from degraded habitat known as grass moorland or ‘white moor’, which no longer meets the definitions of blanket bog or heathland (although it may have other conservation benefits – e.g. for wading birds.

59% of the North Pennines National Landscape is covered in deep peat soils (30cm and over). However only 36% of the National Landscape is classified as blanket bog on the Priority Habitat Inventory because much former blanket bog has degraded and dried out and been misclassified as upland heath or grass moorland, or not included at all on the Priority Habitat Inventory.

On shallower peat soils in the North Pennines the predominant type of heathland habitat should be wet heath [76](See also Box 3 Some components of the heathland mosaic at the bottom of this page). Natural England defines peat soils of 10-30 cm depth as indicative of a wet heath habitat that should be restored to support Favourable Conservation Status (FCS), requiring restoration of natural hydrology and habitat mosaic. [75]

The North Pennines contains 37% of England's blanket bog.

Blanket bog forms in areas of high rainfall where peat has developed, not only in hollows, but across large expanses of flat and undulating ground. Peat formation results from the incomplete decomposition of plants in waterlogged conditions, and their accumulation over time. Blanket bog habitat is what one would expect to see on all but the more steeply sloping high ground [66].

A good quality tract of blanket bog in the North Pennines contains a hummock-hollow complex of multiple peat-building Sphagnum moss species accompanied by dwarf shrubs such as heather, cross-leaved heath, crowberry, cloudberry and bilberry, and other characteristic plants such as cotton grasses, deergrass and bog asphodel. This plant community, and the invertebrates it supports, relies on keeping the water table high (within 10cm of the surface for most of the year). When in good condition these areas will also be actively forming peat.

From the mid-1940s, land managers were paid to drain peatlands in the North Pennines to make them more accessible for grazing by sheep. The consequences have been a disastrous loss of blanket bog and the accompanying biodiversity, carbon and water storage capacity. A very high priority for nature recovery, but also for recovering water storage and carbon sequestration, is the re-wetting of peat.

Heathlands are an important part of naturally functioning upland ecosystems. On shallower peat soils and on mineral soils with peat pockets there is often an intricate mosaic of geology, slope and peat depth. This should, in turn, lead to a complex mosaic of wet and dry heath, dwarf shrubs of various ages, species-rich grasslands and developing scrub, and provide food and shelter for a wide diversity of species, and resilience to climate change.

Over 17% of the North Pennines is classified as heathland, although (see above) some of this is likely to be misclassified blanket bog which has been drained and degraded. Extensive areas of upland heathland (and blanket bog) are managed for grouse, which involves the rotational burning or cutting of the heathland to ensure the plentiful supply of young heather shoots for the grouse to eat, and to control heather beetle, an invertebrate that can defoliate large areas of heather. However, this results in extensive areas of heathland (and blanket bog) comprising a simplified plant community dominated by young heather.

Maximising the potential of upland heath for wildlife requires the development of a dynamic mosaic of heathland habitats, including wet and dry heath, acid grassland, fen and open water habitats, wood pasture, bracken, and native scrub extending across the full altitudinal range for these habitats, from lowland to montane heath. The wet and dry heath elements of this mosaic should have dwarf shrubs with a varied age structure. Alongside hydrological restoration, management of grazing and browsing can deliver most of this change. See Box 3 Some components of the heathland mosaic, for a fuller description of a healthy heathland mosaic.

Increasing the amount of vegetation within upland heathlands needs to be considered in terms of potential fire risk. Heather species (in particular Calluna vulgaris) and purple moor grass burn easily and fiercely, and so any increase in the amount of these vegetation types in an unbroken formation potentially increases the fuel available to a wildfire, making it more intense and harder to control. Conversely, blocking drains on both peatland and heathland increases the amount of time that soils are wet, if not saturated, and much of the vegetation comprising the potentially increased fuel load would comprise deciduous tree and scrub species that are not flammable when alive due to their high moisture content. However, it is important that wildfires are planned for, especially given the increasing temperatures being experienced during dry spells due to climate change.

There is room for an increase in the extent of heathland mosaic through the restoration of other areas on shallow peat and mineral soils, including restoration of grass moorland (often derived from former heathland through overgrazing and/or burning), and through removal of conifer plantation (planted on former heathland) and the restructuring of woodland blocks (planted on former heathland) towards scrubby heath.

Non-native gamebirds, such as pheasants and red-legged partridges, are released in large numbers each year for shooting. Large concentrations of these birds have a range of ecological effects. Their predation of reptiles such as adder is a concern, and their impact on invertebrate food sources may also be so. The birds themselves, and the food put out for them, support species such as carrion crow, which in turn can be a threat to important breeding wader populations. While the release of gamebirds within 500m of Special Protection Areas (sites of international importance for birds) requires licensing by Natural England, this does not extend to other important wildlife sites. See Box 4 Non-native game birds.

Healthy peatlands with sphagnum mosses help to slow the flow of water through the landscape and provide a natural flood defence function for areas downstream. This is true even when peatlands are already saturated with water, as flow rates are significantly slowed by surface roughness. [67,68,69.70,71,72 ]
Much of our drinking water passes through upland peat soils and peat can filter and retain atmospheric pollutants. In contrast, eroding peat can release sediment and carbon into watercourses resulting in higher costs to water companies and, ultimately, higher prices for consumers.
Peatlands are the largest natural carbon store in the world and globally store more carbon (more than 600 gigatonnes - up to 44% of all soil carbon) than all other vegetation types including the world’s forests. Damaged peatlands are a source of anthropogenic carbon dioxide, making peatland restoration an important tool for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

NR1a Restore hydrological function on all peat soils ...

NR1b Restore bare and eroding peat using established techniques ...

Restore bare and eroding peat using established techniques appropriate to the North Pennines. Five steps to restore functioning peatland:

Restore hydrology (slow the flow)
Reprofile steep haggs
Spread moss-rich brash & plant cotton grass
Spread lime and fertilizer
Reintroduce sphagnum mosses

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•

NR1c Create new open water where conditions encourage it

NR1d Restore and manage peatlands as part of the habitat mosaics upon which they rely ...

Restore and manage peatlands as part of the habitat mosaics upon which they rely for their intact hydrology, nutrient status and species composition. i.e. manage adjacent habitats sensitively, for example managing nutrient run-off into valley mires, reducing or removing drainage adjacent to deep peat, allowing/encouraging downslope scrub development below active blanket bog [29].

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•

NR1e Create and maintain structural diversity and habitat mosaics over large areas ...

Create and maintain structural diversity and habitat mosaics over large areas using appropriate grazing and stock management regimes, and using other techniques, such as heather cutting or burning as supplementary tools only (where allowed).

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•

NR1f Expand heathland vegetation by restoring areas of grass moorland ...

NR1g End rotational burning and rotational cutting of heather growing over all peat soils

NR1h Manage risks associated with wildfire ...

NR1j Incentivise nature-recovery focussed grazing management ...

NR1k Remove inappropriate tree planting (and consider removal of self-sown trees and scrub) ...

Remove inappropriate tree planting (and consider removal of self-sown trees and scrub) which is negatively affecting the hydrology of peatland (taking into account needs of other rare and threatened species). (See IUCN position statement on peatlands and trees [27]).

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•

NR1m Restore heathland on areas of plantation woodland ...

Restore heathland on areas of plantation woodland which previously supported heathland vegetation, through a mixture of felling, restructuring and grazing management, and active management of non-native tree regeneration where needed.

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•

NR1n Identify and locate key micro-habitats in heathland mosaics, such as fens and flushes

NR1p Ensure management takes into account rare species and rare associated habitats ...

NR1q Locate and control invasive non-native species such as ...

NR1r Support measures to reduce airborne nutrients from farming and industry ...

Support measures to reduce airborne nutrients from farming and industry which lead to vegetation changes on peatland habitats e.g. Ammonia regulations. voluntary codes, education campaigns, enforcement, planning policy and guidance.

Farmers & land managers	Conservation bodies	National and/or local government
•	•	•

NR1s There should be no new tracks constructed on deep peat

NR1t Reduce use of medication for red grouse

NR1u Undertake legal, proportionate and responsible predator control at levels which benefit champion species such as Curlew.

NR1v Investigate UK-sourced alternatives to coir, used as part of peat restoration works

NR1w Don’t release or feed non-native game birds within 500m of sensitive locations ...

Box 3 Some components of the heathland mosaic

Wet heath is characterised by cross-leaved heath and/or purple moor grass, supports a variety of dwarf shrubs and is rich in invertebrates, and occurs in waterlogged valleys and in association with blanket bog.

Dry heath is dominated by heather (ling) and bell heather (and sometimes bilberry) and occurs on the steeper hill slopes and as mosaics with acid grasslands.

There are also four main types of acid grassland in the North Pennines, distinguished by their dominant species — mat grass, sheep’s fescue, common bent, wavy hair grass and heath rush. Large areas remain because they are difficult to improve for agriculture. It is possible to restore some of the less modified acid grasslands to heathland, though this must be balanced with areas where dwarf shrubs have been lost that are still important for breeding waders.

The highest ground in England, outside the Lake District, can be found in the North Pennines and on the highest and most exposed land is a montane heath with prostrate, weather-beaten shrubs, mosses and lichens, more typical of parts of the Scottish Highlands. Seepages at these higher elevations support a montane ‘brown flush’ vegetation community found nowhere else in England. This includes common yellow sedge, yellow mountain saxifrage, Alpine meadow-rue and three-flowered rush. The North Pennines has one of the largest populations in the world of the endangered marsh saxifrage, which grows in flushes on the high moors.

Many other small habitats, important for wildlife in their own right, exist within and around blanket bog and wet heath on mineral or shallow peat soils, and these too are an essential part of the upland habitat mosaic. The complex geology of the North Pennines means that this mosaic of habitats includes base-rich flushes where lime-rich waters emerge as upland springs and form seepages. These support unique assemblages of plants, some of which are scarce and form part of the arctic-alpine assemblage for which the North Pennines is well-known.

What does a healthy heathland mosaic look like, and how do we get there?

Because the North Pennines is such a highly modified landscape, largely through drainage but also through sheep grazing, it is hard to point to really good examples of structurally and species diverse heathland mosaics. Even those who have been restoring heathland for several decades are still experimenting.

What is known is that getting the underlying processes right (restored hydrology, deer control and the right type and level of grazing) will lead to structurally diverse, species-rich heathland.

Of these three processes grazing is the least well understood, but restoration of heathland appears to be greatest when grazing is by hardy cattle only. Cattle are less selective in their grazing and in the right numbers will suppress some of the rough grasses which might otherwise dominate and still allow some scrub development. If sheep are part of the farm business model in high numbers, there will not be the same diversity, and scrub is unlikely to establish, but if stock densities are low enough some improvement in structure can still be achieved, albeit with lower species diversity.

Box 4 Non-native game birds

Pheasant and Red-legged partridge

Estimates based on the National Gamebag Census by the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust (GWCT) put the numbers of gamebirds released in 2004 at 35 million pheasants and 6.5 million red-legged partridge[60].

On average around 60% of pheasants and partridges released for shooting in the UK die of causes other than being shot and are mostly predated [53]. Some of the birds that are shot will not be picked up on shoot days and are also available to scavenging predators. The biomass of release gamebirds makes a significant but seasonal contribution to the total biomass of British birds.

The effect of these game bird releases on native wildlife and habitats is disputed, although all recent evidence reviews have concluded that there are mostly negative effects ascribed to the release of the birds themselves, and mostly positive effects ascribed to the management of habitat for game birds – namely creation of new woodland for game cover, and the creation and management of rides to create more woodland edge [53,61]. Whilst woodland creation in the right place is to be welcomed (see Outcome 3), there are other means of incentivising its creation that focus on delivering a series of public benefits, including nature recovery. In the North Pennines, ride creation is unlikely to be a major management activity as most woods are already small or linear with plenty of edge for gamebirds to use.

The negative impacts of game bird release on wildlife vary from local to landscape-wide effects and there is a varying degree of confidence in the evidence for impacts on each species or group of species. In the North Pennines the biggest concern is over the impacts on reptiles, on the specialist invertebrates of ancient woodland and on disease transmission to other native species such as grey partridge and black grouse. For all these groups there appears to be good evidence that the impact is negative [53,61] and for others, where evidence is scarce, it would seem prudent to follow the precautionary principle.

Impacts on reptiles

Adders can be negatively impacted by pheasants either through direct predation or disturbance to basking, and some of the anecdotal evidence is well summarised by herpetologist Nigel Hand [51]. There is an overlap between the habitats occupied by pheasants and reptiles, especially in late summer when pheasants begin to disperse and reptiles are basking before hibernation, and just after hibernation in early spring when reptiles are likely to be sluggish and need to bask to gain energy [54]. A recent Belgian study demonstrated a link between mass release of pheasant and the disappearance of snakes and lizards from the environment, and also found that stopping pheasant release in one area led to recolonisation by a widespread species of lizard within a few years [52]. A number of recent evidence reviews have all agreed that the impact of gamebirds on reptiles and amphibians was negative. Predation was considered an impact pathway for all species of reptiles and amphibians reviewed and was considered to be likely at a local to landscape scale [53,61].

Adders (and other reptiles) are in decline across England for a number of reasons, including habitat loss and fragmentation, and disturbance by people and dogs [5]. There are plausible mechanisms for pheasant releases impacting on reptiles.

Impacts on specialist woodland invertebrates.

The effect of pheasant releases on invertebrates in woodland is complex and requires more study to determine its effects on ancient woodland specialist invertebrates, but there is some evidence that there is a negative impact. A recent study [53] showed that within release pens in woodlands invertebrate community composition is altered compared to woodland plots outside. There were fewer large woodland specialist carabid beetles and more generalist species characteristic of more open habitats. Ancient woodland invertebrates are not well studied in the North Pennines and any impact on them is likely to have been overlooked.

Other impacts.

A number of other potential negative impacts are thought, by specialists, to be possible [53,61]. These include disease transmission to wild birds such as black grouse and grey partridge, and to mammals such as hedgehog and brown hare which have been recorded using supplementary feeding stations. Like all the impacts above, these effects are likely to be density dependent.

It has recently been discovered that the causative agent of Lyme disease in questing ticks is more prevalent, and the adult ticks themselves more abundant, in woods where pheasants are released [73].

The birds themselves (as carcasses in the landscape), and the food put out for them in seed hoppers or as seed-bearing crops, support species such as carrion crow and rats, which in turn can be a threat to important breeding wader populations as well as small seed-eating birds such as tree sparrow, linnet and reed bunting.

Recommendations

To minimise potential negative impacts on wildlife and to provide the conditions for recovery of some species, a code is proposed relating to release numbers and siting of release pens and feeding areas for non-native game birds in the North Pennines. At minimum this should include following the Code of Good Shooting Practice [56] and GWCT’s Guidelines for Sustainable Gamebird Releasing [55] which includes avoiding placing release pens in or close to sensitive locations. These sensitive locations are not specified in the guidance but for the species of most concern these should include the areas within and around ancient woodland and heathland, as well as locations outside of these zones where adders are recorded.

Our proposal is for a 500m exclusion zone for non-native game bird release or feeding in or around the following sensitive sites: ancient semi-natural woodland, heathland on the priority habitat inventory, designated wildlife sites (SSSI, SPA, SAC or Local Wildlife Site), or around verified adder records on the regional or national biological records database.

Note: A general licence (GL43) is already available for release on or within 500m of an SAC, but an individual licence required for release on or within 500m of an SPA.

Outcome NR1 Peatland and heathland

Outcome NR1

Blanket bog

Upland heath

What other services does this outcome provide?

Which species are supported by this outcome?

Champion species

Annex 1 species

Measures for outcome NR1